What does s2 mean in portuguese

Earleen Veneza Pundit. What does yasas mean in Greek? Hsiu Bonnet Pundit. What does Opa mean in Brazil? Liliam Viadero Pundit. What does s2 mean? The definition of S2 is "Love heart shape ".

Ask A Question. Co-authors: Updated On: 6th June, Braden: How was your day? Braden: It was good. And yours? Braden: It was good too. I wanted to ask you, when are you going to travel? Braden: Not until January. There is a long time still. Braden: Ooohhh, okay! Braden: also whispering Yeah, I know!

Braden: still whispering Oh, good! Then let's get to work. You know how their throat moves in and out. I never thought about it that way. Lesson focus Braden: What are we studying in this lesson? Braden: Exactly. If you look in the dictionary then you see all of these verb conjugations but not all verbs use all conjugation patterns. Braden: Good plan. In Portuguese, all verbs start in an infinitive from and from there are conjugated. You can identify verbs in their infinitive forms by their ending in -ar, -er, or -ir.

The present tense is sometimes referred to as the present indicative tense, the indicative just means its indicating something specific as in to report or point to something. Braden: We'll use the verb "falar" which means "to speak" as an example. So, we drop the -ar to get fal-. In Portuguese, each subject pronoun has a specific ending you attach to the verb so that the verb conveys the correct meaning.

Braden: So if you want to say "I speak" you add "-o" onto the fal- to get "falo. Braden: So in the dialogue, we heard the word "Precisamos" which we translated as "We need. For the verb "falar" you could say "Elas falam demais! Which means, they talk too much! The majority of verbs are -ar verbs and getting the conjugation correct from the beginning will help you communicate better. Outro Braden: That just about does it for today. Braden: With any subscription, instantly access our entire library of audio and video lessons!

Braden: Put them on your phone or another mobile device, and listen, watch and learn anywhere. Please Sign In to leave a comment. Leave a comment Enter your name. Sorry, please keep your comment under characters. Got a complicated question? Try asking your teacher using My Teacher Messenger. The name field will appear publicly next to your comment.

Please do not enter your email address there. The training block included five sentences that were not part of the experimental task, ensuring that participants were familiarized with the instructions and with the task.

During training, interventions by the experimenter were permitted to allow the participants to fully understand the nature of the task. These interventions included alerting to the semantic i. Participants were instructed to respond carefully since they were not allowed to use rubber. Responses were coded as valid or invalid, following Pinheiro et al. A valid final word was computed if it completed the sentence context appropriately for both levels, semantic and grammatical.

Additionally, for each valid response we computed 1 the frequency of the valid final word for a given sentence context to determine the proportion of participants who generated the same final-word sentence cloze probability ; 2 idiosyncratic responses valid words generated by a single participant ; and 3 invalid responses.

The invalid responses were further categorized as: semantic error; syntactic error; other errors. Semantic errors represented final-word selections that did not fit the previous context in a semantically valid way, for example, if the final word had no semantic relationship with the subject or with the verb of the sentence e. A syntactic error occurred when the final-word was syntactically invalid and violated grammatical rules, such as grammatical gender male and female and number singular and plural agreements e.

Other-type errors included: 1 final-word with both semantic and syntactic violations e. Two judges independently coded the responses. When there was a disagreement among them, they first tried to reach a consensus; when not possible, a third judge was involved and provided the final decision. All judges were experts in language assessment and were external to the research team.

All statistical analyses were performed using the R statistical environment RStudio, version 3. R file. Since all outcomes are dichotomous, mixed-effects logistic models with both participants and sentences random effects were performed. Indeed, logistic modeling is adequate to model a dichotomous outcome variable Y, i.

Odds can be defined as the expected number of events divided by the expected number of non-events [ 46 ]. For example, consider a simple logistic model with a unique continuous predictor X, and assume that b 0 and b 1 are the model coefficients, b 1 being associated with X.

As observed, 63 out of sentence contexts met criteria for high cloze sentences, 30 were medium cloze probability, and 7 low cloze probabilities. Among the 63 high cloze sentences, 49 The cloze level was concordant in Brazil and Portugal databases for 31 out of 49 Among the remaining 26 medium cloze sentences there was no concordance between sentences from Brazil and Portugal see Appendix—Table 1 in S1 Appendix.

The results of these one hundred models are summarized in the Appendix Table 1 in S1 Appendix , from high to low cloze probability. Among these, 47 We also examined whether cloze probabilities predicted the occurrence of idiosyncratic and invalid responses. Mixed-effects logistic models with both participants and sentences random effects were performed. At a first sight, this analysis might seem trivial since, for higher cloze probabilities, there should necessarily be less idiosyncratic and invalid responses.

However, it is important to point out that a similar conclusion does not hold for lower cloze probabilities: when participants do not generate the most frequent word, they do not necessarily provide an idiosyncratic or invalid response, i. Moreover, this analysis is also useful to compare differences between the effects of cloze probabilities on the three error types. In the case of invalid responses, and in order to compare the three error types, the interaction between cloze probabilities and the error type was selected as fixed effect.

Appendix Table 2 in S1 Appendix summarizes the results of these two models and Fig 1 outlines these effects. Fig 2 outlines this predictor effect and Appendix Table 3 in S1 Appendix summarizes the model. We also examined whether age had a predictor effect on the generation of idiosyncratic and invalid responses. In the case of invalid responses, there were no significant differences between semantic and syntactic errors for the younger participants.

Table 2 in S1 Appendix summarizes the results of the three models and Fig 1 outlines these effects. However, this non-significant difference becomes significant when dichotomizing the age scale by considering two groups—children and adolescents. Notice that in this case we are not analyzing the effect of a one year old continuous variable , but we are focusing on a group mean difference categorical variable , which is a weaker constraint.

In the current study we have analysed a set of sentence contexts and their cloze probabilities in order to develop a database for Brazilian Portuguese children and adolescents. Additionally, we have specified age-related effects and the predictor effects of age and cloze probabilities on the generation of idiosyncratic responses and errors semantic, syntactic, and other errors.

As most sentence contexts were high-constraint contexts, the number of final word possibilities was limited, thereby eliciting the same most frequent final word [ 16 , 17 , 28 , 47 , 48 ]. These results are line with previous studies documenting the effects of developmental variables in a cloze task [ 1 , 17 , 32 ]. Of note, the observed age-related changes on cloze probability were not explained by the proportion of semantic or syntactic errors that were mainly observed in younger participants.

For example, in sentence number 8 "The fireman extinguishes the. These results are likely to represent developmental effects that reflect the refinement of the semantic system over age as a function of maturational processes and sociocultural factors e.

Accordingly, older participants are more likely to present maturational and sociocultural advantages over younger participants due to a longer and more diversified experience with the language system [ 31 ]. In fact, it is well established that an increase in the number of lexical items in semantic memory leads to richer semantic representations and vocabulary knowledge [ 49 ]. In the same line, vocabulary knowledge is important for the comprehension of single words, sentences, and narratives.

Vocabulary size and vocabulary complexity are significantly increased with age [ 50 — 53 ]. Thus, the older participants are expected to use more refined words to fit the semantic context of a sentence [ 34 , 54 , 55 ], whereas children are expected to choose words reflecting more general representations, as suggested by our findings. The current results are also consistent with those reported for European Portuguese regarding the number of idiosyncratic responses, semantic and syntactic errors [ 31 ].

In accordance, we observed that older participants were less likely to generate idiosyncratic responses and cloze errors, with no difference between semantic and syntactic errors.

These findings are consistent with previous studies [ 31 ], where an increase in the commonality of responses with age and with years of education was documented [ 56 ]. Syntactic and semantic errors have been associated with limited semantic knowledge, with lexical gaps or weaker word representations [ 57 ].

We observed that most errors committed by younger participants were due to syntactic violations, caused by a violation of grammatical gender e. In Portuguese grammar, the article before the noun will determine both gender and number; i.

In some cases, younger participants committed a double semantic and syntactic violation. Sociolinguistic studies conducted in Brazil have documented that plural matching is highly variable depending on the country [ 58 ]. The regular pattern of the verbal and nominal agreement is acquired over the years and is used when the individual spends more time in a formal educational context [ 58 , 59 ].

Further, an electrophysiology study conducted in the Spanish language—which also has gender agreement between article and noun—showed an interaction between semantic congruity and gender agreement in the N component. A larger and more frontal N was observed for double violations semantic and syntactic compared to semantic violations alone.

According to the authors, readers are able to anticipate and attend to the gender of both articles and nouns.

Gender agreement and semantic congruity interact early in word processing to influence semantic integration of the noun into its sentence context [ 60 ]. Moreover, the grammatical gender agreement rule represents one of the most difficult language aspects to acquire during language development [ 61 ], which may account for the current pattern of findings. In addition to semantic and syntactic errors, children showed two additional types of errors: 1 completion responses that exceeded the use of a single word; and 2 changes in sentence structure, such as replacing the grammatical gender of the article preceding the object plus gender agreement change.

These types of errors suggest that younger children have the conceptual representation of the sentence, but fail to choose a specific word related with it.

This finding may be related to weaker inhibitory mechanisms operating together with the constraint level of a given sentence [ 62 ]. Low-constraint sentences are associated with a larger number of valid final word choices as more features are activated intra-lexically in semantic memory, which brings additional demands to the inhibitory system [ 62 ]. Inhibitory control is necessary to suppress the activation of automatic responses that are irrelevant for the task [ 63 ].

It is well established that inhibitory skills increase with age [ 64 , 65 ] and that children show a less effective use of inhibitory mechanisms compared to adolescents, which develop rapidly during early school years [ 66 , 67 ].

As such, children are expected to present more difficulties in inhibiting lexical items that are semantically related to the sentence-context in their semantic memory, mainly for low-constraint sentences.

In accordance, when we included age and cloze probability as predictors in the error analysis, we identified an increased number of errors for younger participants in low cloze sentence contexts. Of note, the current study may also provide some insights into cross-cultural effects, namely by allowing comparisons of cloze probabilities between Brazilian and European Portuguese [ 31 ] children and adolescents.

Specifically, most of our high cloze sentence contexts 31 of 49 displayed identical cloze probabilities to in Pinheiro et al. The remaining high cloze sentences from our study were classified as low cloze in Pinheiro et al. It is worth noting that the relationship between language and culture is complex. It is well known that the behaviors, beliefs, and customs of a given culture guide social interactions and rules that affect the communicative style and the development of language skills [ 68 ].

The current study did not control important cultural educational level and socioeconomical status and linguistic variables lexical, syntactic, and morphological to allow a more in-depth analysis of this relationship. The differences observed may be related to local, regional or more general country differences, impacting upon syntactic organization of sentences [ 69 ], as well as semantic lexicon development, and should be more systematically explored in future studies.

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